The committee took a rather broad view of its assignment, but nevertheless published its conclusions surprisingly quickly. The French Higher Education system would have to be transformed rapidly and thoroughly. Moreover, the committee argued it was unthinkable to have a free exchange of goods, capital, persons and ideas on the one hand, enabling everyone to exercise his trade where he would prefer to do so, while on the other hand it was impossible to compare the value of diplomas issued by the universities in the EU member states. A European labour market without a European educational system would remain an illusion. The commission did not go as far as to advocate a complete unification of the systems, but it thought a certain degree of harmonisation would be inevitable.

Mr Allègre took advantage of the celebration of the 800th anniversary of the Sorbonne University in Paris to explore with his British, German and Italian colleagues the options of following the committee’s recommendations. On May 28th, 1998, the foursome signed a document concluding that, in an international perspective, a two-tiered system of higher education seemed to take the upper hand. Such a design could gain flexibility by a credit transfer system like ECTS that would enable students to take courses, as part of a degree programme, at various European universities. Graduates from the first cycle should be employable. At postgraduate level students should have a choice between short master’s programmes and longer doctoral studies. In both cycles, students should be encouraged to follow part of their programmes abroad.

One year later, on the occasion of a meeting of the CRE/Confederation of EU Rectors' Conferences in Bologna, the ministers of 29 European countries signed a declaration committing themselves to introduce a two-tier system of higher education within the first decade of the 21st century. To allow such a system to function a European credit system should be developed and all obstacles to the mobility of students and teachers should be removed. Last but not least, all over Europe quality assurance systems should be modelled to the same standard, as a prerequisite for mutual recognition of achievements and diplomas.

Since 1999, 11 more countries have joined the Bologna process; except Belarus, all European countries plus Turkey are now participating. Membership thus now extends far beyond the European Union. Biennially, the ministers responsible for higher education meet, so far in Prague, Berlin and Bergen; the next summit will be held in London in 2007.

The Bologna Model

In most participating countries, the implementation of the Bologna model is under way or even nears completion. It appears, however, that the various countries have not all interpreted the Bologna model in exactly the same way. In most instances, the bachelor programmes take three years, but there are numerous exceptions. An important issue here is the employability of bachelors, particularly in countries were the first cycle used to be longer. As a result, universities advise their graduates to complete the second cycle as well. In some countries, the first cycle is even set up in a way that makes it nearly impossible for graduates to enter the labour market successfully. In disciplines like engineering, physics or the fine arts, strong reservations remain about the validity of three-year academic programmes.

Differences also exist in the scope of bachelor’s programmes, ranging from monodisciplinary degrees through major/minor combinations to programmes with several shorter courses in various disciplines.

In the postgraduate phase, the variety is even greater. Contrasting to the traditional British model, and in fact to the letter of the Bologna Declaration, there is a strong tendency in many countries towards a three-tier rather than a two-tier model. The entrance requirement for doctoral programmes is then the master’s rather than the bachelor’s degree. The duration of both the master’s and the doctoral programmes vary. Master’s programmes may take 12, 18 or 24 months. PhD programmes take from three up to five years, though often there are no strict limits. In some disciplines, notably medicine, the situation is more complex; in most countries, the two-tier model in medical studies has not been implemented.

Some countries find it useful to distinguish between profession oriented and research oriented programmes. In the Netherlands, for example, one-year master’s programmes are being offered next to two-year research oriented programmes leading to an MPhil degree.

Despite the consensus on the length, functions and profiles of master’s programmes in the European Higher Education Area that has been reached in Helsinki in 2003, there still is a significant variety of programme structures to be found.

In some countries, duration remains an issue. Most master’s programmes require between 60 and 120 ECTS credits, i.e. one to two years. In Belgium, the Netherlands and Sweden 60 credit master’s programmes are frequent, but many universities feel these are too short and not internationally competitive. On the other hand, UK universities consider the one-year programmes (though often with a course load exceeding 60 credits) they deliver a particularly attractive element of their study offers, especially to students from outside Europe.

On the continent, it seems to be generally felt that the best moment to follow a master’s programme is directly after obtaining a bachelor’s degree. Some programmes, however, require a first master’s degree or even work experience to be eligible for admission. Integrated four- or even five-year master’s programmes exist or are being considered in Central and Eastern Europe, the UK and Ireland, in particular in engineering and medicine-related disciplines. It will prove difficult to incorporate such programmes in the European qualifications framework.

In countries where the first university degree used to be (the equivalent of) the master’s degree, there is still a tendency to regard bachelor’s and master’s programmes as continuing tracks. Institutions expect and stimulate their graduates to pursue a master’s degree. In the Netherlands, for instance, all bachelors are automatically admitted to at least one master’s programme, usually at the same university. Master’s programmes that are not directly connected to a bachelor’s programme are still rare, except in the UK and Ireland. The ones that exist are often taught in English in order to increase their attractiveness to foreign students. In particular in Northern Europe English is increasingly used as the language of instruction at postgraduate level, both for international and home students.

Programme orientation

In Europe, different distinctions between master’s programmes apply. In many countries, including France and Germany, programmes are differentiated between applied and professional on the one hand, and research-oriented on the other. The UK and Ireland draw a distinction between ‘taught’ and ‘research’ master’s programmes. In Turkey, master’s programmes ‘with thesis’ occur next to programmes ‘without thesis’.

In countries with a binary system of higher education, where universities exist next to polytechnics (Fachhochschulen, hogescholen, högskoler etc.), the situation may be quite complicated. If polytechnics are allowed to deliver master’s programmes, they are generally of the professional type; in Austria and Germany, however, they may offer research master’s programmes as well. In some cases, master’s programmes offered by polytechnics are not publicly funded.

In some countries, polytechnics may award bachelor’s and master’s degrees; in the Netherlands, however, only university graduates may use the addition of Arts/Science. Elsewhere, other degrees are used, like Diplom-Ingenieur in some German Fachhochschulen.

Joint and Double Degrees

In most countries joint degrees may be awarded, either because it is allowed by law or because the law doesn’t mention –and therefore doesn’t exclude– them. The interest in joint degree programmes appears to be growing, although information on the number of programmes is difficult to obtain.

It is not always clear what the added value of delivering a programme jointly is. Sometimes, a programme can only be realised by combining the expertise of two or more institutions; in such cases, it seems obvious the degree should be a joint one. In other cases, however, one university could award a degree just as well, even though the student may have spent some time at another institution. This procedure could avoid possible problems related to quality assurance and accreditation. One issue is that truly European standards and practices for quality management yet have to be developed; another that none of the participating universities might feel fully responsible for the joint degree programme. Stringent agreements on this between the co-operating universities are essential.

There may be more mundane reasons for awarding joint degrees. French employers, for instance, including the Civil Service, have no confidence in foreign degrees; anyone who wants to enter the French labour market must be able to produce a diploma from a French institution. For French students who want to spend

Another variant are double degrees. In this case, instead of a single diploma, graduates receive diplomas from each participating university. Some universities frown upon this practice, because they look upon it as rewarding the same achievement twice. In some countries, however, it may be the only way for a university to avoid legal issues or to secure funding of the programme.
Doctoral Programmes

The Berlin Communiqué (2003) stipulated that a master’s degree should qualify for a doctoral programme; this is generally the case. At the same time, in most countries a bachelor’s degree does not make one eligible for a PhD programme. According to the Bologna Declaration, students should be offered a choice between short master’s programmes and longer doctoral studies, the usual model in the UK. In most countries, however, a master’s degree is a prerequisite for entering a PhD programme.

On the Continent, the MPhil degree is rare, but it is awarded in the Netherlands upon completing a research master’s programme; it is not a prerequisite for pursuing a doctorate. A similar degree exists in e.g. Denmark.

In many countries, higher doctorates exist. In Germany and France (Habilitation) such a doctorate is required for a university career, though that rule is not always applied strictly.

See also, the Bologna Declaration.